The human intestine is thought to be sterile in utero, but it is exposed to a large variety of maternal and environmental microbes immediately after birth. Thereafter, a dynamic period of microbial colonization and succession occurs, which is influenced by factors such as delivery mode, environment, diet and host genotype, all of which impact upon the composition of the gut microbiota, particularly during early life. Subsequently, the microbiota stabilizes and becomes adult-like [1]. The human gut microbiota contains more than 500-1000 different phylotypes belonging essentially to two major bacterial divisions, the Bacteroidetes and the Firmicutes [2]. The successful symbiotic relationships arising from bacterial colonization of the human gut have yielded a wide variety of metabolic, structural, protective and other beneficial functions. The enhanced metabolic activities of the colonized gut ensure that otherwise indigestible dietary components are degraded with release of by-products providing an important nutrient source for the host. Similarly, the immunological importance of the gut microbiota is well-recognized and is exemplified in germfree animals which have an impaired immune system that is functionally reconstituted following the introduction of commensal bacteria [3-5].
Dramatic changes in microbiota composition have been documented in gastrointestinal disorders such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). For example, the levels of Clostridium cluster XIVa bacteria are reduced in subjects with IBD whilst numbers of E. coli are increased, suggesting a shift in the balance of symbionts and pathobionts within the gut [6-9]. Interestingly, this microbial dysbiosis is also associated with imbalances in T effector cell populations.
In recognition of the potential positive effect that certain bacterial strains may have on the animal gut, various strains have been proposed for use in the treatment of various diseases (see, for example, [10-13]). Also, certain strains, including mostly Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium strains, have been proposed for use in treating various inflammatory and autoimmune diseases that are not directly linked to the intestines (see [14] and [15] for reviews). However, the relationship between different diseases and different bacterial strains, and the precise effects of particular bacterial strains on the gut and at a systemic level and on any particular types of diseases, are poorly characterized.
Seres Health, Inc. (see [16]) speculates that bacteria obtained from faecal samples may be useful for treating immune system disorders but no guidance are provided as to which bacteria would be effective.
Honda et al. (see [17]) describes how a mixture of 20 bacteria of different genera, including species from the Clostridium genus, induce the proliferation and accumulation of Th17 cells. Honda et al.'s compositions are said to be useful for improving immune functions and preventing or treating infectious diseases. However, Honda et al. teaches that in order to treat autoimmune and inflammatory disease in an individual, the Th17-inducing bacteria should be inhibited or killed, for example, by administering an antibiotic to the subject.
There is a requirement in the art for new methods of treating inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. There is also a requirement for the potential effects of gut bacteria to be characterized so that new therapies using gut bacteria can be developed.